원제는 Frankenstein: Or the Modern Prometheus(프랑켄슈타인: 또는 현대의 프로메테우스)이다. 초판이 1818년 익명으로 영국에서 출간되었으며, 1831년에 작가의 본명을 밝혀 개정판이 출간되었다.[1] 두 판본의 줄거리는 큰 차이가 없다. 그러나 사상이나 경향면에서 차이가 나는데, 1818본이 좀더 철학적으로 심오하게 주제를 파헤치는데 비해, 1831본에서는 그러한 부분을 줄이고 문학성을 가미했다.
놀랍게도 이 소설을 쓸 당시인 1815년 메리 셸리는 18살이었다. 비오는 여름 어느 날 조지 고든 바이런과 함께 무서운 이야기를 하던 중 영감이 떠올라 썼다고 한다. 1816년, 열일곱 살의 메리는 의붓자매 클레어 클레어몬트, 당시불륜 상대이자 미래의 남편이 될 퍼시, 둘 사이에서 태어난 아들 윌리엄과 함께 스위스를 여행 중이었다. 클레어는 메리에게 제니바 호수 근방에서 살고 있는 시인 바이런을 만나러 가자고 제안했다. 클레어는 얼마 전 바이런과 짧은 사랑을 했었는데[2] 그 때 기억을 잊지 못해 그를 다시 찾아가고자 했던 것이었다. 그렇게 세 사람은 제네바로 여행을 가게 되었다.[3] 당시 바이런은 스무 살의 의사이자 작가 지망생이었던 존 폴리도리(1795~1821)와 함께 지내고 있었다. 메리 일행과 바이런, 폴리도리는 금세 친구가 되었다.
폭풍우가 몰아치던 어느 날 밤, 다섯 사람은 바이런의 별장 안에 모였다. 다섯 사람은 무료함을 견디지 못해 따분해하고 있었는데 그 때 바이런이 재밌는 제안을 하나 한다. 각자 자기만의 무서운 이야기를 하나씩 써보자는 것이었다. 메리를 제외한 나머지 사람들은 바로 재미있는 이야기를 풀어놓았다. 퍼시는 어린 시절의 경험담을 토대로 이야기를 만들었고, 바이런은 흡혈귀를 소재로 하는 단편을 만들었다. 그리고 폴리도리는 열쇠구멍으로 훔쳐본 죄로 처벌당한 해골 아가씨 이야기를 했다.[4]*
메리는 모두의 등골이 오싹해질 만한 소설을 쓰고 싶었다. 그러나 괜찮은 아이디어가 떠오르지 않았다. 그렇게 고민하던 어느 날, 메리는 퍼시와 바이런의 대화를 우연히 엿듣게 된다. 바로 '갈바니즘'(galvanism)에 관한 대화였다. 갈바니즘은 죽은 개구리 뒷다리가 전기 자극을 받고 꿈틀거리는 것을 발견한 의사 갈바니의 실험에서 유래한 용어였다. 이 대화를 들은 메리는 꿈 속에서 창백한 얼굴의 학자가 자신의 연구를 집대성한 괴물 옆에 무릎을 꿇은 모습을 보게 된다.[5] 후에 이것을 토대로 《프랑켄슈타인》을 집필해 대성공을 거둔다.
참고로 셸리의 어머니는 현대 최초의 페미니스트 중 한 명이자 프랑스 혁명에서 중요한 인물인 메리 울스톤크래프트(1759~1797)이다. 울스톤크래프트는 프랑스 혁명에서 공화주의의 정수인 <인간과 시민의 권리>에서 여성이 인간에도 시민에도 속하지 않는다는 점을 지적한 것으로 유명하다. 남성과 평등한 권리를 주장하는 자유주의 페미니스트의 선구자격인 주장이자, 어떤 점에서는 자유주의를 넘어서기도 한다. 셸리는 어린 시절에 어머니를 잃었지만 그녀가 집필한 서적을 읽으며 페미니즘적인 시각을 키웠고, 프랑켄슈타인 소설에도 페미니즘적인 내용들이 많이 담겨 있다. 독립적인 인간으로 인정받는 것이 아니라 누군가의 어머니, 아내, 딸, 여동생, 하녀로만 존재하는 여성 캐릭터, 여성의 희생으로 유지되는 가족 제도 등에 대한 성찰.
또한 그녀의 아버지는 아나키즘의 효시라고 할 수 있는 영국의 철학자 윌리엄 고드윈(1756~1836)이다. 아이러니 하게도 그는 결혼을 영국의 권위주의가 집결한 제도이자 가장 모순된 소유라고 여겨왔으나, 울스톤크래프트와 사랑하게 되어 결혼했다. 그러나 이 결혼은 아이의 장래와 사회적 제도상 겪게 될 불편을 고려하여 이루어진 것이었으며 메리 울스톤크래프트와 윌리엄 고드윈 모두 결혼제도 자체에 회의적인 사람들이었기 때문에 결혼 후에도 따로 살면서 독립적인 삶과 개인 행동의 자유를 유지해갔다.
한편 남편인 퍼시 셸리도 유명한 영문학 작가로, 현대 대중들에게 유명한 소네트 '오지만디아스'가 있다.
메리 셸리를 소재로 그린 만화인 메리 고드윈이 존재한다.
놀랍게도 이 소설을 쓸 당시인 1815년 메리 셸리는 18살이었다. 비오는 여름 어느 날 조지 고든 바이런과 함께 무서운 이야기를 하던 중 영감이 떠올라 썼다고 한다. 1816년, 열일곱 살의 메리는 의붓자매 클레어 클레어몬트, 당시
폭풍우가 몰아치던 어느 날 밤, 다섯 사람은 바이런의 별장 안에 모였다. 다섯 사람은 무료함을 견디지 못해 따분해하고 있었는데 그 때 바이런이 재밌는 제안을 하나 한다. 각자 자기만의 무서운 이야기를 하나씩 써보자는 것이었다. 메리를 제외한 나머지 사람들은 바로 재미있는 이야기를 풀어놓았다. 퍼시는 어린 시절의 경험담을 토대로 이야기를 만들었고, 바이런은 흡혈귀를 소재로 하는 단편을 만들었다. 그리고 폴리도리는 열쇠구멍으로 훔쳐본 죄로 처벌당한 해골 아가씨 이야기를 했다.[4]*
메리는 모두의 등골이 오싹해질 만한 소설을 쓰고 싶었다. 그러나 괜찮은 아이디어가 떠오르지 않았다. 그렇게 고민하던 어느 날, 메리는 퍼시와 바이런의 대화를 우연히 엿듣게 된다. 바로 '갈바니즘'(galvanism)에 관한 대화였다. 갈바니즘은 죽은 개구리 뒷다리가 전기 자극을 받고 꿈틀거리는 것을 발견한 의사 갈바니의 실험에서 유래한 용어였다. 이 대화를 들은 메리는 꿈 속에서 창백한 얼굴의 학자가 자신의 연구를 집대성한 괴물 옆에 무릎을 꿇은 모습을 보게 된다.[5] 후에 이것을 토대로 《프랑켄슈타인》을 집필해 대성공을 거둔다.
참고로 셸리의 어머니는 현대 최초의 페미니스트 중 한 명이자 프랑스 혁명에서 중요한 인물인 메리 울스톤크래프트(1759~1797)이다. 울스톤크래프트는 프랑스 혁명에서 공화주의의 정수인 <인간과 시민의 권리>에서 여성이 인간에도 시민에도 속하지 않는다는 점을 지적한 것으로 유명하다. 남성과 평등한 권리를 주장하는 자유주의 페미니스트의 선구자격인 주장이자, 어떤 점에서는 자유주의를 넘어서기도 한다. 셸리는 어린 시절에 어머니를 잃었지만 그녀가 집필한 서적을 읽으며 페미니즘적인 시각을 키웠고, 프랑켄슈타인 소설에도 페미니즘적인 내용들이 많이 담겨 있다. 독립적인 인간으로 인정받는 것이 아니라 누군가의 어머니, 아내, 딸, 여동생, 하녀로만 존재하는 여성 캐릭터, 여성의 희생으로 유지되는 가족 제도 등에 대한 성찰.
또한 그녀의 아버지는 아나키즘의 효시라고 할 수 있는 영국의 철학자 윌리엄 고드윈(1756~1836)이다. 아이러니 하게도 그는 결혼을 영국의 권위주의가 집결한 제도이자 가장 모순된 소유라고 여겨왔으나, 울스톤크래프트와 사랑하게 되어 결혼했다. 그러나 이 결혼은 아이의 장래와 사회적 제도상 겪게 될 불편을 고려하여 이루어진 것이었으며 메리 울스톤크래프트와 윌리엄 고드윈 모두 결혼제도 자체에 회의적인 사람들이었기 때문에 결혼 후에도 따로 살면서 독립적인 삶과 개인 행동의 자유를 유지해갔다.
한편 남편인 퍼시 셸리도 유명한 영문학 작가로, 현대 대중들에게 유명한 소네트 '오지만디아스'가 있다.
메리 셸리를 소재로 그린 만화인 메리 고드윈이 존재한다.
2. 《프랑켄슈타인》의 가치[편집]
《걸리버 여행기》, 《유토피아》, 요하네스 케플러의 《꿈》, 《지킬박사와 하이드》 등과 함께 최초의 SF[6]로 거론되며, 특히 이 작품이 최초의 SF라는 데 무게를 실어주는 사람이 많다. 1970년대 영국에서 최초의 SF를 《프랑켄슈타인》이라고 한 논문에 의해 시작되었으나, 신화나 설화에 있는 과학적인 이야기의 흔적을 외면하거나 다른 국가에 있는 과학적인 이야기의 흔적을 싸그리 무시한다 하여 까였다.
그럼에도 《프랑켄슈타인》은 최소한 영문학 SF의 효시가 맞다. SF(과학소설)을 환상문학의 갈래에 포함시킨다면 환상문학의 기원이야 선사시대의 신화나 설화로까지 거슬러 올라간다. 환상문학의 정의는 실제세계와는 다른 초자연성에 있다. 이러한 초자연성의 생경함에 독자는 기괴함이나 경이로움을 느끼고, 독자의 감상은 공포로 연결된다. 이같은 공포를 이용해 설화나 신화에 지배 이데올로기를 삽입할 수 있었던 것이다. 하지만 과학소설은 근대 이전의 신화, 로망스 문학과는 분명한 차이를 보인다. 그것은 과학과 역사주의가 19세기를 지배하면서 사실주의가 등장했고, 과학소설은 이러한 사실주의 문예사조 안에 있다는 것이다. 다시 말해, 근대의 과학적, 합리주의적 세계관으로 쓰인 과학소설은 원시시대의 신화, 설화와는 세계를 인식하는 방법에서부터 다르다.[7]
《걸리버 여행기》나 《유토피아》와 비교해도 마찬가지다. 과학소설의 정의를 '합리적인 가상소설'로 볼 경우, SF의 뿌리를 유토피아 문학에서 찾을 수도 있다. 이럴 경우, 앞서 언급한 《유토피아》가 과학소설의 효시가 될 수 있다.[8] 그러나 유토피아 문학의 본질은 과학기술 자체가 아니라 정치, 사회 풍자에 있다. 과학기술은 사회풍자를 위한 도구 역할에 그친다. 그래서 《유토피아》에서 현실에 존재하지 않는 이상국가 '유토피아'가, 《걸리버 여행기》에서 결핍을 모르는 풍요의 섬 '벤살렘 왕국'이 나오더라도, 이들 소설들은 SF로 부를 수 없다. 과학기술이 사회 및 인간과의 관계에 던지는 질문과 답이 없기 때문에 '원형적' 과학소설 또는 '선구적' 과학소설이라 해야 보다 적절할 것이다. 그러므로 SF는 과학적 지식에 근거해 과학을 주제로 쓴 공상소설이라 다시 정의할 수 있다.[9] 따라서 갈바니즘에 근거한 생명창조 실험을 모티브로, 과학적 세계관에 대한 불길한 예감과 이에 대한 문학적 저항이 드러나는 《프랑켄슈타인》에 이르러서야 과학소설로서 명확한 정체성을 지닌다고 할 수 있는 것이다.[10]
또한 의외로 프랑켄슈타인 관련 논문을 보면서 많이 파고 들어가면 들어갈수록 《프랑켄슈타인》보다 많은 것을 알려주는 작품이 《프랑켄슈타인》 이전에는 없다는 것에 놀라게 된다. 인조인간에 대한 경계 외에도 특히 완벽하리라고 생각되었던 과학의 실패, 사회화된 여성에 대한 부정적인 결말 등 의외로 지금까지도 연구하면 캐낼 수 있는 것들이 많다고 한다.
《프랑켄슈타인》 출간 당시에는 매서운 혹평에 시달렸다.[11] 익명으로 발표된 당시에는 문학적 가치에 대한 담론보다는 작가가 누구냐는 것이 더 큰 관심사였다. 많은 이들이 남성일거라 추측했던 작가가 여자로 밝혀졌을 때 "스무 살이 채 안된 여성의 병적인 상상력이 만들어 낸 기이한 산물"이라는 악평이 이어졌다. 당대의 유명한 소설가였던 월터 스코트(Walter Scott)는 "이 소설은 보통 사람들이 받아들이기 힘든 상상력의 결과이며 불경스러울 정도로 자연과 인간에 대해 암울하고 어두운 시각을 지니고 있다’’고 평했다.[12] 《프랑켄슈타인》은 당시 유행하던 괴기소설의 한 부류 정도로 취급받았고[13] 오랫동안 문학사의 주류에서 잊혀져 왔다.[14]
하지만 1960년대부터 SF가 장르문학으로 각광을 받기 시작하면서 《프랑켄슈타인》에 대한 재조명 및 재평가가 이루어졌다. 특히나 20세기 초부터 SF에서 두각을 보이는 여성작가들이 많았다. 예컨대, 미국의 여성작가이며 페미니스트인 샬롯 퍼킨스 길먼(Charlotte Perkins Gilman)[15]과 독일의 테아 폰 하르보우(Thea von Harbou)[16]를 들 수 있다. 유토피아, 디스토피아는 여성으로써 느끼는 사회적 문제를 표현하기에 최적이었다.[17] 이후 《프랑켄슈타인》은 사실주의, 낭만주의, 고딕소설[18], 페미니즘[19], 정신분석, 마르크스주의, 탈식민주의[20], 개인주의[21], 생명윤리, 퀴어문화 [22]등 각종 담론의 출발점으로 대접받을 수 있었다.[23]
그럼에도 《프랑켄슈타인》은 최소한 영문학 SF의 효시가 맞다. SF(과학소설)을 환상문학의 갈래에 포함시킨다면 환상문학의 기원이야 선사시대의 신화나 설화로까지 거슬러 올라간다. 환상문학의 정의는 실제세계와는 다른 초자연성에 있다. 이러한 초자연성의 생경함에 독자는 기괴함이나 경이로움을 느끼고, 독자의 감상은 공포로 연결된다. 이같은 공포를 이용해 설화나 신화에 지배 이데올로기를 삽입할 수 있었던 것이다. 하지만 과학소설은 근대 이전의 신화, 로망스 문학과는 분명한 차이를 보인다. 그것은 과학과 역사주의가 19세기를 지배하면서 사실주의가 등장했고, 과학소설은 이러한 사실주의 문예사조 안에 있다는 것이다. 다시 말해, 근대의 과학적, 합리주의적 세계관으로 쓰인 과학소설은 원시시대의 신화, 설화와는 세계를 인식하는 방법에서부터 다르다.[7]
《걸리버 여행기》나 《유토피아》와 비교해도 마찬가지다. 과학소설의 정의를 '합리적인 가상소설'로 볼 경우, SF의 뿌리를 유토피아 문학에서 찾을 수도 있다. 이럴 경우, 앞서 언급한 《유토피아》가 과학소설의 효시가 될 수 있다.[8] 그러나 유토피아 문학의 본질은 과학기술 자체가 아니라 정치, 사회 풍자에 있다. 과학기술은 사회풍자를 위한 도구 역할에 그친다. 그래서 《유토피아》에서 현실에 존재하지 않는 이상국가 '유토피아'가, 《걸리버 여행기》에서 결핍을 모르는 풍요의 섬 '벤살렘 왕국'이 나오더라도, 이들 소설들은 SF로 부를 수 없다. 과학기술이 사회 및 인간과의 관계에 던지는 질문과 답이 없기 때문에 '원형적' 과학소설 또는 '선구적' 과학소설이라 해야 보다 적절할 것이다. 그러므로 SF는 과학적 지식에 근거해 과학을 주제로 쓴 공상소설이라 다시 정의할 수 있다.[9] 따라서 갈바니즘에 근거한 생명창조 실험을 모티브로, 과학적 세계관에 대한 불길한 예감과 이에 대한 문학적 저항이 드러나는 《프랑켄슈타인》에 이르러서야 과학소설로서 명확한 정체성을 지닌다고 할 수 있는 것이다.[10]
또한 의외로 프랑켄슈타인 관련 논문을 보면서 많이 파고 들어가면 들어갈수록 《프랑켄슈타인》보다 많은 것을 알려주는 작품이 《프랑켄슈타인》 이전에는 없다는 것에 놀라게 된다. 인조인간에 대한 경계 외에도 특히 완벽하리라고 생각되었던 과학의 실패, 사회화된 여성에 대한 부정적인 결말 등 의외로 지금까지도 연구하면 캐낼 수 있는 것들이 많다고 한다.
《프랑켄슈타인》 출간 당시에는 매서운 혹평에 시달렸다.[11] 익명으로 발표된 당시에는 문학적 가치에 대한 담론보다는 작가가 누구냐는 것이 더 큰 관심사였다. 많은 이들이 남성일거라 추측했던 작가가 여자로 밝혀졌을 때 "스무 살이 채 안된 여성의 병적인 상상력이 만들어 낸 기이한 산물"이라는 악평이 이어졌다. 당대의 유명한 소설가였던 월터 스코트(Walter Scott)는 "이 소설은 보통 사람들이 받아들이기 힘든 상상력의 결과이며 불경스러울 정도로 자연과 인간에 대해 암울하고 어두운 시각을 지니고 있다’’고 평했다.[12] 《프랑켄슈타인》은 당시 유행하던 괴기소설의 한 부류 정도로 취급받았고[13] 오랫동안 문학사의 주류에서 잊혀져 왔다.[14]
하지만 1960년대부터 SF가 장르문학으로 각광을 받기 시작하면서 《프랑켄슈타인》에 대한 재조명 및 재평가가 이루어졌다. 특히나 20세기 초부터 SF에서 두각을 보이는 여성작가들이 많았다. 예컨대, 미국의 여성작가이며 페미니스트인 샬롯 퍼킨스 길먼(Charlotte Perkins Gilman)[15]과 독일의 테아 폰 하르보우(Thea von Harbou)[16]를 들 수 있다. 유토피아, 디스토피아는 여성으로써 느끼는 사회적 문제를 표현하기에 최적이었다.[17] 이후 《프랑켄슈타인》은 사실주의, 낭만주의, 고딕소설[18], 페미니즘[19], 정신분석, 마르크스주의, 탈식민주의[20], 개인주의[21], 생명윤리, 퀴어문화 [22]등 각종 담론의 출발점으로 대접받을 수 있었다.[23]
3. 여담[편집]
익히 알려진 대로 프랑켄슈타인[24]이 오랜 연구 끝에 발견한 생명의 불꽃을 만드는 법을 시험하겠다는 욕망에 괴물을 만들지만, 막상 탄생한 괴물을 보고 놀라서 비명을 지르고 괴물은 사라져버렸는데, 여차여차 일이 심하게 꼬여서 괴물에게 자신의 동생과 아내, 친구를 잃게 되자 북극으로 괴물을 추적해 나섰다가 죽는다는 이야기. 후대에 모티브를 받아 창작된 여러 작품의 이미지로 인해, 본 소설이 공포 또는 가벼운 내용으로 치부되는 경우가 많은데, 실제 원작은 생각할 거리를 많이 담고 있는 편. 작품 후반부에 프랑켄슈타인이 괴물과 조우했을 때, 괴물이 내뱉는 대사가 매우 인상적이다.
일단 분량은 《드라큘라》보다 적은 데다가, 테마를 이해하는 것이 《드라큘라》보다 쉽고, 괴물 또한 동시대의 고딕소설에 비하면 불쌍하게 묘사되기 때문에 현대인들이 읽어도 쉽게 감명 받을 수 있다.고딕소설[25] '죽은 자를 살린다'는 이야기는 현대에 와서도 수많은 오마주나 영감을 받은 작품들을 만들었다. 꼭 '죽은 자를 살린다'는 것이 아니라 '신의 영역에 도전하는 과학자의 이미지'는 프랑켄슈타인 박사에서 나왔다고 봐도 좋다. 다시 말해 매드 사이언티스트의 원조. 그리고 인간과 다르다는 이유로 인간에게 괴롭힘 당하는 캐릭터들도 모두 이 소설의 괴물에서 비롯된 것이다.
그리고 원작의 기괴하고 "자연과인간에 대한 암울하고 어두운 시각"은 그당시의 사회적 분위기 탓이기도 했다. 처음 작품이 잉태된 1816년은 그 전 해에 인도네시아에서 탐보라 화산이 대분화를 해서 세계적으로 "여름이 사라진 해"로 유명하다. 한여름에도 서리가 내리고 폭설이 내리는 세계적 이상기후와 냉해로 큰 흉년이 든 해라 종말론적 흉흉한 분위기가 사회에 감돌았고 작가도 당연히 이에 영향받은 것.
일단 분량은 《드라큘라》보다 적은 데다가, 테마를 이해하는 것이 《드라큘라》보다 쉽고, 괴물 또한 동시대의 고딕소설에 비하면 불쌍하게 묘사되기 때문에 현대인들이 읽어도 쉽게 감명 받을 수 있다.고딕소설[25] '죽은 자를 살린다'는 이야기는 현대에 와서도 수많은 오마주나 영감을 받은 작품들을 만들었다. 꼭 '죽은 자를 살린다'는 것이 아니라 '신의 영역에 도전하는 과학자의 이미지'는 프랑켄슈타인 박사에서 나왔다고 봐도 좋다. 다시 말해 매드 사이언티스트의 원조. 그리고 인간과 다르다는 이유로 인간에게 괴롭힘 당하는 캐릭터들도 모두 이 소설의 괴물에서 비롯된 것이다.
그리고 원작의 기괴하고 "자연과인간에 대한 암울하고 어두운 시각"은 그당시의 사회적 분위기 탓이기도 했다. 처음 작품이 잉태된 1816년은 그 전 해에 인도네시아에서 탐보라 화산이 대분화를 해서 세계적으로 "여름이 사라진 해"로 유명하다. 한여름에도 서리가 내리고 폭설이 내리는 세계적 이상기후와 냉해로 큰 흉년이 든 해라 종말론적 흉흉한 분위기가 사회에 감돌았고 작가도 당연히 이에 영향받은 것.
4. 등장인물[편집]
- 엘리자베스 라벤자
빅터 프랑켄슈타인의 약혼녀. 5세 때 프랑켄슈타인 가로 입양되어 빅터와 사랑하는 사이가 되었지만, 결국 크리처에게 목숨을 잃고 만다. - 앙리 클레르발
빅터 프랑켄슈타인의 친구. 항상 헌신적인 우정으로 빅터를 돕는다. 크리처의 반려를 만들겠다는 빅터의 계획을 모른 채 같이 여행을 떠나지만 빅터에게 고통을 주려는 목적을 가진 크리처에게 살해당한다. - 유스틴 모리츠
프랑켄슈타인 가의 하녀. 주로 빅터의 어린 동생 윌리암의 양육을 돕고 있었다. 윌리암이 크리처에 의해 살해당한 후 크리처에 의해 살인범으로 몰렸다. 프랑켄슈타인 가족들은 그녀의 무고를 믿었지만 너무도 확고한 증거 때문에 결국 형장의 이슬이 되었다. - 로버트 월튼
이야기의 화자. 북극을 탐험중인 탐험대의 단장. 배를 타고 북극을 향하다가 크리처를 쫓던 프랑켄슈타인을 만나 그에게 이 기괴한 이야기의 전말을 듣고, 그의 최후를 지켜본다. 이 소설은 로버트가 쓴 편지의 형식을 빌린, 일종의 극중극이다. - 알폰세 프랑켄슈타인
빅터 프랑켄슈타인 의 아버지. 제네바의 명문가 출신이며, 공직에 있는 동안 그 유능함으로 명성이 자자했던 인물. 빅터의 엘리자베스가 크리쳐 에 의해 살해되자 그 충격으로 곧 사망한다.
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Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by English author Mary Shelley (1797–1851) that tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a grotesque but sapient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18, and the first edition of the novel was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818, when she was 20.[1] Her name first appeared on the second edition, published in France in 1823.
Shelley travelled through Europe in 1814, journeying along the river Rhine in Germany with a stop in Gernsheimwhich is 17 km (10 mi) away from Frankenstein Castle, where, two centuries before, an alchemist was engaged in experiments.[2][3][4] Later, she travelled in the region of Geneva (Switzerland)—where much of the story takes place—and the topic of galvanism and other similar occult ideas were themes of conversation among her companions, particularly her lover and future husband, Percy Shelley. Mary, Percy, Lord Byron and John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story. After thinking for days, Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made; her dream later evolved into the novel's story.
Frankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement. At the same time, it is an early example of science fiction. Brian Aldiss has argued that it should be considered the first true science fiction story because, in contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction, the central character "makes a deliberate decision" and "turns to modern experiments in the laboratory" to achieve fantastic results.[5] It has had a considerable influence in literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories, films and plays.
Since the novel's publication, the name "Frankenstein" has often been used to refer to the monster itself. This usage is sometimes considered erroneous, but usage commentators regard it as well-established and acceptable.[6][7][8] In the novel, the monster is identified by words such as "creature", "monster", "demon", "wretch", "abortion", "fiend" and "it".
Speaking to Victor Frankenstein, the wretch refers to himself as "the Adam of your labours", and elsewhere as someone who "would have [been] your Adam", but is instead "your fallen angel" (which ties to Lucifer in Paradise Lost, which the monster reads, and which relates to the disobedience of Prometheus in the book's subtitle).
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Frankenstein is written in the form of a frame story that starts with Captain Robert Walton writing letters to his sister. It takes place at an unspecified time in the 18th century, as the letters' dates are given as "17—".
Captain Walton's introductory frame narrative[edit]
The novel Frankenstein is written in epistolary form, documenting a fictional correspondence between Captain Robert Walton and his sister, Margaret Walton Saville. Walton is a failed writer and captain who sets out to explore the North Pole and expand his scientific knowledge in hopes of achieving fame. During the voyage, the crew spots a dog sled driven by a gigantic figure. A few hours later, the crew rescues a nearly frozen and emaciated man named Victor Frankenstein. Frankenstein has been in pursuit of the gigantic man observed by Walton's crew. Frankenstein starts to recover from his exertion; he sees in Walton the same obsession that has destroyed him, and recounts a story of his life's miseries to Walton as a warning. The recounted story serves as the frame for Frankenstein's narrative.
Victor Frankenstein's narrative[edit]
Victor begins by telling of his childhood. Born in Naples, into a wealthy Genevan family, Victor and his brothers, Ernest and William, all three being sons of Alphonse Frankenstein by the former Caroline Beaufort, are encouraged to seek a greater understanding of the world through chemistry. As a young boy, Victor is obsessed with studying outdated theories that focus on simulating natural wonders. When Victor is five years old, his parents adopt Elizabeth Lavenza, the orphaned daughter of an expropriated Italian nobleman, with whom Victor later falls in love. (During this period, Victor's parents, Alphonse and Caroline, take in yet another orphan, Justine Moritz, who becomes William's nanny.)
Weeks before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt in Germany, his mother dies of scarlet fever; Victor buries himself in his experiments to deal with the grief. At the university, he excels at chemistry and other sciences, soon developing a secret technique to impart life to non-living matter. Eventually, he undertakes the creation of a humanoid, but due to the difficulty in replicating the minute parts of the human body, Victor makes the Creature tall, about 8 feet (2.4 m) in height and proportionally large. Despite his intentions, the beautiful creation of his dreams is instead hideous, with yellow eyes and skin that barely conceals the muscle tissue and blood vessels underneath. Repulsed by his work, Victor flees and dismisses him when it awakens. While wandering the streets, he meets his childhood friend, Henry Clerval, and takes Henry back to his apartment, fearful of Henry's reaction if he sees the monster. Victor does not have to deal with that issue, however, because the monster has escaped.
Victor falls ill from the experience and is nursed back to health by Henry. After a four-month recovery, he returns home when he learns of the murder of his brother William. Upon arriving in Geneva, Victor sees the Creature near the crime scene and climbing a mountain, leading him to believe his creation is responsible. Justine Moritz, William's nanny, is convicted of the crime after William's locket, which had contained a miniature portrait of Caroline, is found in her pocket. Victor is helpless to stop her from being hanged, as he knows no one would believe his story.
Ravaged by grief and guilt, Victor retreats into the mountains. The Creature finds him and pleads for Victor to hear his tale. Intelligent and articulate, the Creature relates his first days of life, living alone in the wilderness and finding that people were afraid of and hated him due to his appearance, which led him to fear and hide from them. While living in an abandoned structure connected to a cottage, he grew fond of the poor family living there, and discreetly collected firewood for them. Secretly living among the family for months, the Creature learned to speak by listening to them and he taught himself to read after discovering a lost satchel of books in the woods. When he saw his reflection in a pool, he realized his physical appearance was hideous, and it terrified him as it terrifies normal humans. Nevertheless, he approached the family in hopes of becoming their friend. Initially he was able to befriend the blind father figure of the family, but the rest of them were frightened and they all fled their home, resulting in the Creature burning the cottage in a fit of rage. He then swore revenge on his creator for bringing him into a world that hated him. He traveled to Victor's family estate using details from Victor's journal, murdered William, and framed Justine.
The Creature demands that Victor create a female companion like himself. He argues that as a living being, he has a right to happiness. The Creature promises that he and his mate will vanish into the South American wilderness, never to reappear, if Victor grants his request. Should Victor refuse his request, The Creature also threatens to kill Victor's remaining friends and loved ones and not stop until he completely ruins him.
Fearing for his family, Victor reluctantly agrees, with the Creature saying he will secretly watch over Victor's progress. Clerval accompanies him to England, but they separate at Victor's insistence at Perth, Scotland. Victor suspects that the Creature is following him. Working on the female creature on the Orkney Islands, he is plagued by premonitions of disaster, such as the female hating the Creature or becoming more evil than him, but more particularly the two creatures might lead to the breeding of a race that could plague mankind. He tears apart the unfinished female creature after he sees the Creature, who had indeed followed Victor, watching through a window. The Creature later confronts and tries to threaten Victor into working again, but Victor is convinced that the Creature is evil and that its mate would be evil as well, and the pair would threaten all humanity. Victor destroys his work and the Creature vows that he will "be with [him] on [his] wedding night." Victor interprets this as a threat upon his life, believing that the Creature will kill him after finally becoming happy. When Victor lands in Ireland, he is soon imprisoned for Clerval's murder, as the Creature had strangled Clerval to death and left the corpse to be found where his creator had arrived, causing the latter to suffer another mental breakdown in prison. After being acquitted, Victor returns home with his father, who has restored to Elizabeth some of her father's fortune.
In Geneva, Victor is about to marry Elizabeth and prepares to fight the Creature to the death, arming himself with pistols and a dagger. The night following their wedding, Victor asks Elizabeth to stay in her room while he looks for "the fiend." While Victor searches the house and grounds, the Creature strangles Elizabeth to death. From the window, Victor sees the Creature, who tauntingly points at Elizabeth's corpse; Victor tries to shoot him, but the Creature escapes. After getting back to Geneva, Victor's father, weakened by age and by the death of his precious Elizabeth, dies a few days later. Seeking revenge, Victor pursues the Creature to the North Pole, but collapses from exhaustion and hypothermia before he can find his quarry.
Captain Walton's concluding frame narrative[edit]
At the end of Victor's narrative, Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story, closing the frame around Victor's recounting. A few days after the Creature vanished, the ship becomes trapped in pack ice and multiple crewmen die in the cold, before the rest of Walton's crew insists on returning south once it is freed. Walton sees Victor's story as a warning, and decides to turn the ship around.
Victor dies shortly thereafter, but not before telling Walton to "avoid ambition". Walton discovers the Creature on his ship, mourning over Victor's body. The Creature tells Walton that Victor's death has not brought him peace; rather, his crimes have left him completely alone. The Creature vows to kill himself so that no others will ever know of his existence. Walton watches as the Creature drifts away on an ice raft that is soon lost in darkness and distance, never to be seen again.
Characters[edit]
- Victor Frankenstein - Protagonist and narrator of most of the story. Creates the monster.
- The creature (Frankenstein's monster) - The hideous creature created by Victor Frankenstein.
- Mrs. Margaret Saville - Resident of England. Sister of Robert Walton. Addressee of letters written by him.
- Captain Robert Walton - Captain of the boat which picked up Victor. Brother of Mrs. Margaret Saville, and writer of letters addressed to her.
- Beaufort - A Merchant. Caroline Beaufort’s father. One of the most intimate friends of Victor’s father.
- Caroline Beaufort - Beaufort’s daughter, Victor’s mother.
- Ernest - Victor’s brother. Seven years younger than Victor.
- Henry Clerval - Victor’s best friend from childhood. The son of a merchant of Geneva.
- Justine Moritz - Daughter of Madame Moritz. Moved in with the Frankenstein family at age of 12, and hanged for the murder of William.
- Elizabeth Lavenza - Daughter of a Milanese nobleman. Her mother was a German and had died on giving birth to her. Raised as Victor’s “cousin” in the Frankenstein home.
- William - Victor’s youngest brother.
- M. Krempe - professor of natural philosophy at university of Ingolstadt. He was an uncouth man, but deeply imbued in the secrets of his science. Influenced Victor.
- M. Waldman - A professor, at Ingolstadt. Influenced Victor.
- Agatha - Daughter of De Lacey. Felix’s sister.
- Felix - Son of De Lacey.
- De Lacey - Blind old man descended from a good family in France. Father of Agatha and Felix. His family was observed by the monster, and unbeknownst to them, taught him to speak and read.
- Safie - Daughter of a Turkish Merchant and a Christian Arab.
- Mr. Kirwin - A magistrate.
- Daniel Nugent - A witness against Victor in his murder trial.
Composition[edit]
During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer", the world was locked in a long cold volcanic wintercaused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815.[10] Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and later husband) Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn.
Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana,[11] then Byron proposed that they "each write a ghost story".[12] Unable to think of a story, young Mary became anxious: "Have you thought of a story? I was asked each morning, and each morning I was forced to reply with a mortifying negative."[13] During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. "Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated", Mary noted, "galvanism had given token of such things".[14] It was after midnight before they retired, and unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the grim terrors of her "waking dream".[15]
In September 2011, astronomer Donald Olson, after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa the previous year, and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars, concluded that her "waking dream" took place "between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m." on 16 June 1816, several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story.[17]
She began writing what she assumed would be a short story. With Percy Shelley's encouragement, she expanded the tale into a full-fledged novel.[18] She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment "when I first stepped out from childhood into life".[19] Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half-sister Fanny.[20] Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this John Polidori created The Vampyre (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Thus two legendary horror tales originated from the conclave.
The group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well. Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly; however, she also believed the Romantic ideal that misused power could destroy society (Bennett 36–42).[21]
Mary's and Percy Bysshe Shelley's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 (written 1816–1817), as well as Mary Shelley's fair copy for her publisher, are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004, and they belong now to the Abinger Collection.[22] In 2008, the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson, that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley's original text with Percy Shelley's additions and interventions alongside.[23]
Publication[edit]
Shelley completed her writing in April/May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was published on 1 January 1818[24] by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones.[25][26] It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard "triple-decker" format for 19th-century first editions.
The second edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1822 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake.[27] This edition credited Mary Shelley as the book's author on its title page.
On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one-volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley.[28] This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially to make the story less radical. It included a lengthy new preface by the author, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition is the one most widely published and read now, although a few editions follow the 1818 text.[29] Some scholars prefer the original version, arguing that it preserves the spirit of Mary Shelley's vision (see Anne K. Mellor's "Choosing a Text of Frankensteinto Teach" in the W. W. Norton Critical edition).
In 2008, a new edition of the novel, titled The Original Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson, was published. Robinson examined the original manuscript by Mary Shelley and noted the edits that Percy Bysshe Shelley made to it.[30]
Frankenstein and the Monster[edit]
The creature[edit]
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Part of Frankenstein's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give it a name, which causes a lack of identity. Instead it is referred to by words such as "wretch", "monster", "creature", "demon", "devil", "fiend", and "it". When Frankenstein converses with the creature in Chapter 10, he addresses it as "vile insect", "abhorred monster", "fiend", "wretched devil", and "abhorred devil".
During a telling of Frankenstein, Shelley referred to the creature as "Adam".[32][not in citation given] Shelley was referring to the first man in the Garden of Eden, as in her epigraph:
- Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay
- To mould Me man? Did I solicit thee
- From darkness to promote me?
- John Milton, Paradise Lost (X. 743–5)
Although the creature would be described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity, this description is not entirely consistent with Shelley's work; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Frankenstein's monster were more the result of James Whale's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story, and other early motion-picture works based upon the creature. In Shelley's original work, Dr. Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life, and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter, though the exact nature of the process is left largely ambiguous. After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power, the doctor spends two years painstakingly constructing the creature's body (one anatomical feature at a time, from raw materials supplied by "the dissecting room and the slaughter-house"), which he then brings to life using his unspecified process.
The creature has often been mistakenly called "Frankenstein". In 1908 one author said "It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term "Frankenstein" is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster".[33] Edith Wharton's The Reef (1916) describes an unruly child as an "infant Frankenstein."[34] David Lindsay's "The Bridal Ornament", published in The Rover, 12 June 1844, mentioned "the maker of poor Frankenstein." After the release of Whale's cinematic Frankenstein, the public at large began speaking of the creature itself as "Frankenstein". This also occurs in Frankenstein films, including Bride of Frankenstein (1935) and several subsequent films, as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Furthermore, future renditions and adaptations of the story include an evil laboratory assistant Igor or Ygor, who does not actually exist within the original narrative.
Victor Frankenstein's surname[edit]
Mary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream-vision. Despite her public claims of originality, however, a number of other sources have been suggested as Shelley's actual inspiration. The German name Frankenstein means "stone of the Franks", and it is associated with various places in Germany, including Frankenstein Castle (Burg Frankenstein) in Darmstadt, Hesse, and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein, a town in the Palatinate. There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen, Thuringia, and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony. Until 1945, Ząbkowice Śląskie, now a city in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland, was mainly populated by Germans and named Frankenstein in German, and was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606, which has been suggested as an inspiration to the author.[35] Finally, the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia.
Radu Florescu argues that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814 during their return to England from their elopement to Switzerland. It was at this castle that a notorious alchemist, Conrad Dippel, had experimented with human bodies, and Florescu reasons that Mary suppressed mention of her visit in order to maintain her public claim of originality.[36] A literary essay by A. J. Day supports Florescu's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel.[37] Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle that exists in Mary Shelley's 'lost' journals. According to Jörg Heléne, the 'lost journals', as well as Florescu's claims, cannot be verified.[38]
Victor Frankenstein's given name[edit]
A possible interpretation of the name Victor is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton, a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley even has the monster himself read it).[39][40] Milton frequently refers to God as "the Victor" in Paradise Lost, and Shelley sees Victor as playing God by creating life. In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost; indeed, the monster says, after reading the epic poem, that he empathizes with Satan's role in the story.
There are many similarities between Victor and Percy Shelley, Mary's husband. Victor was a pen name of Percy Shelley's, as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth, Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire.[41] There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy, who at Eton had "experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions", and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment.[42]
Percy Shelley was the first-born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe Shelley, 1st Baronet of Castle Goring, and Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel.[43] Victor's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counselors and syndics. Percy had a sister named Elizabeth; Victor had an adopted sister named Elizabeth.
On 22 February 1815, Mary Shelley gave birth to a baby two months prematurely, and the baby died two weeks later. Percy did not care about the condition of this premature infant and left with Claire, Mary's stepsister, for a lurid affair.[44] When Victor saw the creature come to life he fled the apartment, though the newborn creature approached him, as a child would a parent. The question of Victor's responsibility to the creature is one of the main themes of the book.
Modern Prometheus[edit]
The Modern Prometheus is the novel's subtitle (though some modern editions now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an introduction).[45] Prometheus, in later versions of Greek mythology, was the Titan who created mankind at the behest of Zeus. He made a being in the image of the gods that could have a spirit breathed into it.[46] Prometheus taught man to hunt, read, and heal their sick, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor-quality offerings from humans, Zeus kept fire from mankind. Prometheus, being the creator, took back the fire from Zeus to give to man. When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus, where each day an eagle would peck out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god. He was intended to suffer alone for eternity, but eventually Heracles (Hercules) released him.
Prometheus was also a myth told in Latin, but was a very different story. In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water, again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein, as Victor rebels against the laws of nature (how life is naturally made) and as a result is punished by his creation.
The Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein. Victor's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of the Titan in creating humans.
Some have argued that Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil, and blamed him for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat (fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing).[47]
Byron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus, and Percy Shelley would soon write his own Prometheus Unbound (1820). The term "Modern Prometheus" was actually coined by Immanuel Kant in reference to Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity.[48]
Shelley's sources[edit]
Shelley incorporated a number of different sources into her work, one of which was the Promethean myth from Ovid. The influence of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, are also clearly evident within the novel. Mary is likely to have acquired some ideas for Frankenstein's character from Humphry Davy's book Elements of Chemical Philosophy, in which he had written that "science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ...". References to the French Revolution run through the novel; a possible source may lie in François-Félix Nogaret's Le Miroir des événemens actuels, ou la Belle au plus offrant (1790): a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankésteïn who creates a life-sized automaton.[49]
Within the past thirty years or so, many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then popular natural philosophers (now called physical scientists) with Shelley's work on account of several notable similarities. Two of the most notable natural philosophers among Shelley's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini, who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London[50] and Johann Konrad Dippel, who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans. While Shelley was obviously aware of both these men and their activities, she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes.
Reception[edit]
Frankenstein has been both well received and disregarded since its anonymous publication in 1818. Critical reviews of that time demonstrate these two views, along with confused speculation as to the identity of the author. The Belle Assemblee described the novel as "very bold fiction" (139). The Quarterly Review stated that "the author has the power of both conception and language" (185). Sir Walter Scott, writing in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine congratulated "the author's original genius and happy power of expression" (620), although he is less convinced about the way in which the monster gains knowledge about the world and language.[52] The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany hoped to see "more productions from this author" (253). On the other hand, the Quarterly Review described it "a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity".[53]
In two other reviews where the author is known as the daughter of William Godwin, the criticism of the novel makes reference to the feminine nature of Mary Shelley. The British Critic attacks the novel's flaws as the fault of the author: "The writer of it is, we understand, a female; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel; but if our authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex, it is no reason why we should; and we shall therefore dismiss the novel without further comment" (438). The Literary Panorama and National Register attacks the novel as a "feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin's novels" produced by the "daughter of a celebrated living novelist" (414). Despite the reviews, Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations—Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein, a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation appeared as early as 1821 (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin).
Critical reception of Frankenstein has been largely positive since the mid-20th century.[54] Major critics such as M. A. Goldberg and Harold Bloom have praised the "aesthetic and moral" relevance of the novel,[55] although there are also critics such as Germaine Greer, who criticized the novel as terrible due to technical and narrative defects (such as it featuring three narrators that speak in the same way).[56] In more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism:Lawrence Lipking states 'even the Lacanian subgroup of psychoanalytic criticism, for instance, has produced at least half a dozen discrete readings of the novel'[57] The novel today is generally considered to be a landmark work of romantic and gothic literature, as well as science fiction.[58]
Film director Guillermo del Toro describes Frankenstein as "the quintessential teenage book", adding "You don't belong. You were brought to this world by people that don't care for you and you are thrown into a world of pain and suffering, and tears and hunger. It's an amazing book written by a teenage girl. It's mind blowing."[59] Professor of philosophy Patricia MacCormack says the creature, brought to life by Victor Frankenstein, addresses the most fundamental human questions: "It's the idea of asking your maker what your purpose is. Why are we here, what can we do?"[59]
Derivative works[edit]
There are numerous novels retelling or continuing the story of Frankenstein and his monster.
Films, plays and television[edit]
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- 1823: Richard Brinsley Peake's adaptation, Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein, was seen by Mary Shelley and her father William Godwin at the English Opera House.
- 1826: Henry M. Milner's adaptation, The Man and The Monster; or The Fate of Frankenstein opened on 3 July at the Royal Coburg Theatre, London.[60]
- 1910: Edison Studios produced the first Frankenstein film, directed by J. Searle Dawley.[59]
- 1915: Life Without Soul, the second film adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel, was released. No known print of the film has survived.
- 1920: The Monster of Frankenstein, Directed by Eugenio Testa, starring Luciano Albertini and Umberto Guarracino.
- 1931: Universal Studios' Frankenstein, directed by James Whale, starring Colin Clive, Mae Clarke, John Boles, Edward Van Sloan, Dwight Frye, and Boris Karloff as the monster.[59]
- 1935: James Whale directed the sequel Bride of Frankenstein, starring Colin Clive as the Doctor, and Boris Karloff as the monster once more. This incorporated the novel's plot motif of Doctor Frankenstein creating a bride for the monster omitted from Whale's earlier film. There were two more sequels, prior to the Universal "monster rally" films combining multiple monsters from various movie series or film franchises.[59]
- 1939: Son of Frankenstein was another Universal monster movie with Boris Karloff as the Creature. Also in the film were Basil Rathbone as the title character and Bela Lugosi as the sinister assistant Ygor. Karloff ended playing the Frankenstein monster with this film.
- 1942: The Ghost of Frankenstein featured brain transplanting and a new monster, played by Lon Chaney Jr. The film also starred Evelyn Ankers and Bela Lugosi.
- 1942–1948: Universal did "monster rally" films featuring Frankenstein's Monster, Dracula and the Wolf Man. Included would be Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man, House of Frankenstein, House of Dracula and Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. The last three films introduced Glenn Strange as Frankenstein's monster.
- 1957–1974: Hammer Films in England did a string of Frankenstein films starring Peter Cushing, including The Curse of Frankenstein, The Revenge of Frankenstein and Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed. Co-starring in these films were Christopher Lee, Hazel Court, Veronica Carlson and Simon Ward. Another Hammer film, The Horror of Frankenstein, starred Ralph Bates as the main character, Victor Frankenstein.[59]
- 1965: Toho Studios created the film Frankenstein Conquers the World or Frankenstein vs. Baragon, followed by The War of the Gargantuas.
- 1972: A comedic stage adaptation, Frankenstein's Monster, was written by Sally Netzel and produced by the Dallas Theater Center.[61]
- 1973: The TV film Frankenstein: The True Story appeared on NBC. The movie starred Leonard Whiting, Michael Sarrazin, James Mason, and Jane Seymour.
- 1981: A Broadway adaptation by Victor Gialanella played for one performance (after 29 previews) and was considered the most expensive flop ever produced to that date.[62]
- 1984: The flop Broadway production yielded a TV film starring Robert Powell, Carrie Fisher, David Warner, and John Gielgud.
- 1992: Frankenstein became a Turner Network Television film directed by David Wickes, starring Patrick Bergin and Randy Quaid. John Mills played the blind man.
- 1994: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein appeared in theatres, directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh, with Robert De Niro and Helena Bonham Carter. Its all-star cast also included John Cleese, Ian Holm, and Tom Hulce.[59]
- 2004: Frankenstein A two-episode mini-series starring Alec Newman, with Luke Goss and Donald Sutherland. This is the only T.V. or movie adaption that is faithful to the novel.[citation needed]
- 2011: In March, BBC3 broadcast Colin Teague's live production from Kirkstall Abbey, Leeds, billed as Frankenstein's Wedding, Live in Leeds.[63] About the same time, the National Theatre, London presented a stage version of Frankenstein, which ran until 2 May 2011. The play was written by Nick Dear and directed by Danny Boyle. Jonny Lee Miller and Benedict Cumberbatch alternated the roles of Frankenstein and the Creature.[64] The National Theatrebroadcast live performances of the play worldwide on 17 March.
- 2012: An interactive ebook app created by Inkle and Profile Books that retells the story with added interactive elements.[65]
- 2014: Penny Dreadful is a horror TV series that airs on Showtime, that features Doctor Victor Frankenstein as well as his creature.
- 2015: Frankenstein, a modern-day adaptation written and directed by Bernard Rose.
- 2015: Victor Frankenstein is an American film directed by Paul McGuigan.[66]
- 2016: Frankenstein, a full length ballet production by Liam Scarlett.[67] Some performances were also live simulcasts worldwide.[68]
- 2019: Bride of Frankenstein, the currently postponed second film in the Dark Universe, a reboot of the Universal series in which Javier Bardem is currently slated to portray Frankenstein's monster.[69][70]
- Loose adaptations
- 1967: I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night and its sequel, Frankenstein Unbound (Another Monster Musical), are a pair of musical comedies written by Bobby Pickett and Sheldon Allman. The casts of both feature several classic horror characters including Dr. Frankenstein and his monster.
- 1973: The Rocky Horror Show, is a British horror comedy stage musical written by Richard O'Brian in which Dr. Frank N. Furter has created a creature (Rocky), to satisfy his (pro)creative drives. Elements are similar to I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night.
- 1973: Andy Warhol's Frankenstein. Usually, the doctor is a man whose dedication to science takes him too far, but here his interest is to rule the world by creating a new species that will obey him and do his bidding.
- 1974: Young Frankenstein. Directed by Mel Brooks, this sequel-spoof has been listed[71] as one of the best movie comedies of any comedy genre ever made, even prompting an American film preservation program to include it on its listings. It reuses many props from James Whale's 1931 Frankenstein and is shot in black-and-white with 1930s-style credits. Gene Wilder portrayed the descendant of Dr. Frankenstein, with Peter Boyle as the Monster.
- 1975: The Rocky Horror Picture Show is the 1975 film adaptation of the British rock musical stageplay, The Rocky Horror Show (1973), written by Richard O'Brien.
- 1984: Frankenweenie is a parody short film directed by Tim Burton, starring Barrett Oliver, Shelley Duvall and Daniel Stern.
- 1985: The Bride starring Sting as Baron Charles Frankenstein and Jennifer Beals as Eva, a woman he creates in the same fashion as his infamous monster.
- 1986: Gothic, directed by Ken Russell, is the story of the night that Mary Shelley gave birth to Frankenstein. Starring Gabriel Byrne, Julian Sands, Natasha Richardson.
- 1988: Frankenstein (フランケンシュタイン) is a manga adaptation of Shelley's novel by Junji Ito.
- 1989: Frankenstein the Panto. A pantomime script by David Swan, combining elements of Frankenstein, Dracula, and traditional British panto.
- 1990: Frankenstein Unbound. Combines a time-travel story with the story of Shelley's novel. Scientist Joe Buchanan accidentally creates a time-rift which takes him back to the events of the novel. Filmed as a low-budget independent film in 1990, based on a novel published in 1973 by Brian Aldiss. This novel bears no relation to the 1967 stage musical with the same name listed above.
- 1995: Monster Mash is a film adaptation of I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night starring Bobby Pickett as Dr. Frankenstein. The film also features Candace Cameron Bure, Anthony Crivello and Mink Stole.
- 1998: Billy Frankenstein is a very loose adaptation about a boy who moves into a mansion with his family and brings the Frankenstein monster to life. The film was directed by Fred Olen Ray.
- 2003: Reading Frankenstein,[72] a new media performance work in which Mary Shelley is a genetic engineer and artificial life scientist and her Creature a hybrid form of computational a-life. It was co-created by director Annie Loui and artist-writer Antoinette LaFarge for UC Irvine.
- 2004: Frankenstein made-for-TV film based on Dean Koontz's Frankenstein.
- 2005: Frankenstein vs. the Creature from Blood Cove, a 90-minute feature film homage of classic monsters and Atomic Age creature features, shot in black and white, and directed by William Winckler. The Frankenstein Monster design and make-up was based on the character descriptions in Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley's novel.
- 2009: The Diary of Anne Frankenstein, a short film from Chillerrama.
- 2009: Anuman Interactive (French publisher) launches Frankestein, a hidden objects game freely inspired by Mary Shelley’s book, on iPhone and iPad.[73]
- 2011: Frankenstein: Day of the Beast is an independent horror film based loosely on the original book.
- 2011: Victor Frankenstein appears in the ABC show Once Upon a Time, a fantasy series on ABC that features multiple characters from fairy tales and classic literature trapped in the real world.
- 2012: Frankenweenie, Tim Burton's feature film remake of his 1984 short film of the same name.
- 2012: In the Adventure Time episode "Princess Monster Wife", the Ice King removes body parts from all the princesses that rejected him and creates a jigsaw wife to love him.
- 2012: A Nightmare on Lime Street, Fred Lawless's comedy play starring David Gest staged at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool.[74]
- 2014: I, Frankenstein is a 2014 fantasy action film. The film stars Aaron Eckhart as Adam Frankenstein and Bill Nighy. The film is based on the graphic novel.
- 2014: Frankenstein, MD, A web show by Pemberly Digital starring Victoria, a female adaptation of Victor.
- 2015: The Supernatural season 10 episodes Book of the Damned, Dark Dynasty and The Prisoner feature the Styne Family which member Eldon Styne identifies as the descendants of the house of Frankenstein. According to Eldon, Mary Shelley had learned their secrets while on a visit to Castle Frankenstein and wrote a book based on her experiences, forcing the Frankensteins underground as the Stynes. The Stynes, through bioengineering and surgical enhancements, feature many of the superhuman features of Frankenstein's monster.
- 2015: The Frankenstein Chronicles, is a British television drama series - starring Sean Bean as John Marlott and Anna Maxwell Martin as Mary Shelley
- 2016: Second Chance, a TV series known at one point as Frankenstein, was inspired by the classic.[75]
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